Table 4 Agroforestry, agriculture, and energy nexus: problem solution matrix

Legislation separating agricultural and forest land, without recognizing agroforestry—all WB countries

1. Make agroforestry visible

o Defining and adopting legal frameworks to support agroforestry, along with developing guidelines for implementation

Lack of knowledge and cooperation among key stakeholders—all WB countries

1. Encouraging land users at all levels

o Aim: to recognize agroforestry as a dynamic system that sustains and divides output while providing social, economic, and environmental benefits

2. Provide a training program and set of instructions to assist farmers in creating business strategies that are connected to value chain development in order to establish and oversee agroforestry systems in various geographic areas

High energy demands—all WB countries

1. Energy plantations

o In this system, trees are grown to meet the energy demands of the rural masses

Climate changes and their negative impact on the WB countries

1. Agroforestry systems

o Play a significant role in sequestering carbon and contributing to climate change mitigation;

o Transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources offered by agroforestry

In Serbia, agroforestry lacks sufficient visibility

Legislative solutions:

1. Policy integration:

o Solution: Integrate agroforestry into national agricultural and environmental policies

2. Financial incentives:

o Solution: Provide financial incentives for farmers to adopt agroforestry practices

3. Land tenure security:

o Solution: Ensure secure land tenure for farmers practicing agroforestry

4. Environmental regulations:

o Solution: Promote agroforestry as a tool for environmental conservation

Practical solutions:

1. Education and training:

o Solution: Enhance farmers’ knowledge and skills in agroforestry

2. Research and development:

o Solution: Invest in research to identify best practices and suitable species for agroforestry in Serbia

3. Pilot projects and demonstration farms:

o Solution: Establish pilot projects and demonstration farms to showcase agroforestry benefits

Despite its advantages, Albania's agroforestry has challenges, including shifting land use patterns, rural-to-urban population migration, and farmers’ insufficient comprehension of agroforestry’s potential benefits

1. Incentivizing agroforestry adoption

Solution: Financial incentives and subsidies

2. Education and training programs

Solution: Extension services and training workshops

3. Promoting agroforestry through policy support

Solution: Supportive policies and regulatory frameworks

4. Addressing rural-to-urban migration

Solution: Enhancing rural livelihoods and infrastructure

5. Demonstrating economic viability

Solution: Showcasing successful agroforestry models

6. Creating market access

Solution: Developing value chains for agroforestry products

7. Community engagement and participation

Solution: Encouraging local community involvement

Modern agroforestry in BiH is still in its infancy

1. Silvoarable systems (Alley cropping):

• Example: Plant walnut trees in rows with crops like wheat or vegetables in between

• Benefits: Provides nuts, timber, and improved soil fertility

2. Silvopasture (forest grazing):

• Example: Graze sheep or goats in managed forest areas

• Benefits: Offers natural forage for livestock and reduces undergrowth, lowering fire risk

3. Forest farming:

• Example: Grow medicinal plants like ginseng or mushrooms under the forest canopy

• Benefits: Diversifies income and maintains forest health

4. Riparian buffers:

• Example: Plant native trees like willows along riverbanks

• Benefits: Protects water quality and stabilizes banks

5. Woodlots and biomass production:

• Example: Establish short rotation coppicing with poplar or willow

• Benefits: Provides renewable energy and reduces pressure on natural forests

6. Windbreaks and shelterbelts:

• Example: Plant rows of trees such as pine along crop fields

• Benefits: Protects crops from wind damage and reduces soil erosion

High forest cover and diverse ecological conditions, but scarce arable land in Montenegro

1 Redesigned land parcels for more efficiency and addressing land abandonment

o Agroforestry redesigns land parcels for enhanced efficiency by boosting productivity, providing essential ecosystem services, and making land more resilient to climate change. It also addresses land abandonment by restoring degraded lands and offering diversified income opportunities, thereby revitalizing rural economies and communities

2 Consider the benefits of large forest cover of the territory in the context of tree energy via agroforestry

o In Montenegro, where forest cover is significant, agroforestry can play a crucial role in enhancing energy security, promoting sustainable land use, and supporting local economies by integrating tree-based energy solutions

In recent years, the biggest threat to North Macedonia’s agricultural landscape diversity has been the significant loss of pastures and meadows due to land abandonment and the cessation of traditional farming practices

1. Restoration of abandoned lands and biodiversity enhancement

o Agroforestry can rejuvenate abandoned lands by reintroducing productive activities. Planting trees, shrubs, and other perennial plants can improve soil health (by reducing erosion, enhancing soil organic matter, and improving nutrient cycling), increase biodiversity, and make these lands productive again

2. Economic benefits:

o Agroforestry provides multiple income streams by diversifying the types of crops and products that can be harvested (e.g., fruits, nuts, timber, and forage). This can make farming more economically viable and attractive, potentially reversing land abandonment trends

3. Support for Traditional Practices:

o Agroforestry can integrate and support traditional farming practices, such as silvopasture. Additionally, it can contribute to preserving North Macedonia’s valued traditional landscapes

In North Macedonia, promoting agroforestry could be a strategic approach to revitalizing agricultural landscapes, enhancing biodiversity, and supporting sustainable development in rural areas