Table 4 Relationship between pressures originating from solar parks and spatial attributes, where those pressures can lead to change in state

Biodiversity

Direct destruction or conversion of habitats

Habitats of sensitive bird species

[55]

Indirect destruction of habitats (e.g., if solar park acts as a barrier for migrating species)

Areas of importance for biotope network

Habitats of migrating species

Habitats of medium-big or big mammals

Habitats of xerophilic and mesophilic grasshoppers

[46, 72, 79]

Change in species composition by shading, seed

grasslands

[77, 80, 81]

Attraction of (water-)insects by reflecting surface of panel

Areas near semi-natural water bodies

[82, 83]

Emissions in construction phase (noise, sound, vibrations)

Habitats of sensitive fauna

[6, 46, 84]

Soil and water

Soil sealing, soil compaction as a consequence of construction work

Areas with sensitive soil functions

Areas with sensitive functions for groundwater regeneration

areas with low environmental degradation

Areas for flood protection

[46, 85]

Emissions in construction phase (substances)

areas of importance for drinking-water supply

[6, 46, 84]

Microclimatic changes (shadowing, reduced precipitation, temperature)

Areas with sensitive habitats

[50, 80, 86]

Rain redistribution under solar panels and possible erosive effect

Slopes at risk of erosion

areas with sensitive habitats

[21, 22, 87]

Reduced evapotranspiration

Areas with sensitive abiotic functions

[24, 25, 88]

Cultural ecosystem services

Impairment of recreational function of the landscape

Settlements

Areas for recreational purposes

[46, 89,90,91,2,93,94]